What does the theory of catastrophism propose?

The theory of catastrophism posits that the Earth's landscape has been shaped primarily by a series of sudden, short-lived, and violent events, such as floods, volcanic eruptions, and impacts from celestial bodies. According to this theory, these catastrophic events are significant drivers of geological change and can lead to dramatic shifts in the environment and landscape in a relatively short period.

This perspective contrasts with the theory of uniformitarianism, which suggests that geological processes occur gradually and continuously, shaping the Earth over long periods. The emphasis on major catastrophic events leading to significant changes aligns with historical observations of mass extinctions and geological upheaval that have dramatically altered the Earth's surface.

The other options do not capture the essence of catastrophism: gradual changes represent the opposite school of thought, human activity does not account for natural geological processes, and peaceful processes alone cannot explain the dramatic features observed in the geological record.